Secondary Module Five: Reflection Activities for Learners in Content Subjects

 

In this module, “Reflection Activities for Learners in Content Subjects” you will be presented with information about the Reflection step in the Instructional Framework PAR. You will learn by reading about Reflection and its importance, viewing a video, and completing assignments that apply your learning after completing the module.

 

Objectives:  At the completion of this module, participants will be able to:

·      Explain the importance of reflection in reading content material;

·      Identify effective strategies for reading, vocabulary, and discussion to help students be reflective;

·      Learn some activities that help students reflect in content areas;

·      See an effective reflection activity demonstrated.

 

Complete this activity:

 

Consider this list of terms to be used in this module * and rate yourself on how well you know these terms:

 

Term

I know this term!

Maybe I know something about this term!

I don't know this term!

Fade

 

 

 

Autonomous learner

 

 

 

Comprehension monitoring

 

 

 

Informed

communication

 

 

 

Evaluation

 

 

 

Products of learning

 

 

 

Non-traditional tests

 

 

 

Factstorming

 

 

 

Magic Square Activity

 

 

 

 

* There is a glossary at the end of the module, but don't use it until you have rated yourself and located the terms within the module!!

 

Let's review what we already know!

 

In the last module, assistance-- what learners understand about the content they are studying—was stressed. In this module we will explore ways to help learners as they demonstrate their knowledge of content they have learned.  This is the Reflection step of the PAR Instructional Framework:

 

Richardson & Morgan’s IF-PAR

Reflection

  Provide extension, critical thinking

  Determine comprehension

 

In module one, several preparation activities were demonstrated:

·      A Power Point that presented “the big picture”

·      A visual and audio about reading to learn

·      A survey to create reader identification with the topic

 

In module two, other preparation activities were demonstrated: 

·      The self-vocabulary inventory

·      A preview of the article to notice subheadings, charts, length, major ideas to be presented

·      A “mind grabber” that gets students’ attention

·      An Anticipation Guide

 

In module three, these preparation activities were demonstrated:

·      Using analogies or comparisons between known and new information

·      Using a jot chart to prepare learners

·      Factstorming

·      Guiding reading with a DRTA

 

In module four, comprehension activities that build skills for understanding, remembering and applying content learning were addressed:

·      Mapping

·      Mystery Clue Game

·      BRIAB

 

In this module, you will learn about reflection activities that build skills for remembering, extending critical thinking, demonstrating knowledge gained, and applying content learning.

 

Consider this excerpt of literature:

Instructional Strategies I use right now
 
 


Mind Grabber

“Words are things, and a small drop of ink, falling like dew upon a thought, produces that which makes thousands, perhaps millions, to think.”

Lord Byron

 

Sometimes, in the fierce competition to demonstrate student performance by standardized test scores, educators forget that the ultimate goal of learning content is thinking and using the content in effective ways.  True, test scores are one way to demonstrate that content has been learned, but test scores may not be the best way to demonstrate the power of critical thinking and success in life.  If educators provide effective reflection opportunities to students, then test scores will most likely rise because critical thinking and understanding of what to do with content information has increased. 

 

Another effective phrase to consider as a mind grabber at this point might be:

“Don’t put the cart before the horse.”

 

Personal Goals:

Before proceeding farther, write down your goals for this module and any questions you would like to have answered. 

 

Lesson Text:

 

Information about reflection

 

The third step in the PAR Lesson Framework is reflection, which takes place after reading has been completed. Whereas the preparation phase of the lesson helps to motivate of students and the assistance phase aids in building comprehension, the reflection phase helps students clarify thinking and focus understanding. It is also at this phase that students learn how to retain the reading material. Full understanding cannot occur until reflection occurs. Although the teacher may guide students by providing instructional support, the student’s role is crucial at this stage.  The teacher must fade out and the student must take center stage!

 

There are also several important by-products of this third phase. One is that it helps students think critically about what they have learned. Such critical thinking is necessary if students are going to become mature readers. A second by-product is that reflecting on the reading helps students to retain understanding for a longer period of time. The more we reflect on reading material or on the lesson at hand, the longer we will remember it and the more likely we will be to use the knowledge we retain. In this manner knowledge is related in a meaningful way to what is already known so that it will be retained and become the basis for further learning. A third by-product is that reflecting provides a demonstration of one’s learning through some system of evaluation.

 

Erickson and Schultz (1992) note that very little educational research has focused on the learner and the social, emotional, and cognitive interplay involved in learning. From the research that has been done on student learning, all indications are that readers must take charge of their own learning as soon as possible. The goal is to help students become autonomous learners, learners who can learn on their own. Hawkes and Schell (1987) caution that teacher-set reasons to read may encourage dependence and a passive approach to reading. Self-set reasons to read promote reading that is active and ultimately independent.

 

Teachers help students achieve this independence by allowing students, as soon as possible, to take active, responsible roles. However, students may be left stranded unless teachers guide them toward independence by showing them how to use their own communication skills. Kletzein (1991) investigated adolescents’ use of strategies for reading. She found that students used many strategies when they were reading independently but students with poor comprehension were less flexible. Good readers are able to pause and demonstrate their comprehension by retelling and analyzing what they have read and by using certain strategies consistently. They are practicing comprehension monitoring. In contrast, poor readers seem to lose track of their reading and to have no particular strategies for comprehending. In other words, poor readers do not function independently. Kletzein recommends that students be given more control over the strategies so that they can gain independence.

 

The Role of Communication

More than at any other stage, reflective learning depends on informed communication. Teachers have to let go, learn not to talk, but encourage students to ask their own questions and cooperate with each other in their learning (Barton, 1995). Alvermann (1987) contends that one of the easiest things a teacher can do to limit the amount of teacher talk and increase the amount of student talk is to discontinue the use of teacher questions. Counselors practice such a philosophy when they avoid too many questions or suggestions and guide their clients by listening attentively.

 

Listening and speaking reflectively about reading reinforce learning in a social context. Such discussion reflects students’ thinking. By listening to and considering the viewpoints of other participants, students may gain different and deeper insights about a topic. Other examples surface and new connections are made. Most important, students gain control of their own learning. Richardson (1999) reports that students prefer discussion to lecture as a means of deep learning, although many students she interviewed reported that few discussions occurred in their classes. Alvermann and colleagues (1996) recommend that productive small-group discussions be fostered by providing students with frequent opportunities to discuss what they read; developing a sense of community in the classroom; attending to group dynamics; and building on students’ keen sense of conditions that foster good discussion (p. 264). They further caution that teachers should take care to moderate rather than dominate a discussion and find topics that engage students.

 

The role of Evaluation and testing

The term assessment can be thought of as a process of collecting data for the purpose of making decisions about students (Salvia & Ysseldyke, 1998). Assessment is an ongoing process; each time a teacher begins a new unit of instruction, assessment should occur. This process is “determining background”  (part of the Preparation step). Evaluation is a term usually reserved for making judgments about students’ performance. Reflection often involves evaluation, testing what was learned. This is the time when the product of comprehension is demonstrated, whether through formal tests or other means of assigning grades that represent a measure of learning.

The major purpose of standardized, norm-referenced tests is to evaluate the amount of information that students know about a subject. These tests usually consist of multiple-choice or closure questions, which are readily and quickly scored by scan sheets or sometimes by hand. One correct answer is expected per item. Many classroom teachers follow standardized test formats as they construct classroom tests.

 

Whereas standardized tests are used to compare the performance of groups-- such as the results from one school compared to those of a school system, or a system to the state, or the state to the nation--teacher-made tests offer a way to measure the products of learning in the content classroom. There comes a time when the readers have read and thought about the material, the words have been learned, the relationships have been built, patterns of organization have been identified, and activities have facilitated satisfactory understanding. In short, comprehension has been developed, and the time has come to measure the learning achieved by evaluating the level of learning. Tests are the culmination of periods of study about a content topic. Tests come in many forms, from informal observations of student learning to formal final examinations. Students’ ages and the topics covered influence the type of evaluation to be made. Teachers do need to test in some way; that is part of their instruction.

 

Tests should match the learning, not vice versa. Beyer (1984) writes: “Much so-called teaching of thinking skills consists largely of giving students practice in answering old test questions, a procedure that probably focuses students’ attention more on question-answering techniques than on the specific cognitive skills that are the intended outcomes of such activities” (p. 486). Rather than giving practice with stale questions, teachers will want to discover ways to improve their tests, thereby eliciting the cognitive skills that are the ultimate goal of instruction.

 

The role of Nontraditional Tests

Everyone appreciates variety. Teachers may be pleasantly surprised to find that students increase productivity when an evaluation device looks more like the strategies that have been used to instruct than the same old test format. “Conventional policy-based testing . . . is the wrong kind of tool for thoughtfulness. It makes people accountable only for the development of very low levels of knowledge and skill” (Brown, 1987, p. 5). Although Brown’s comments refer specifically to standardized tests, they are applicable to teacher-made, nontraditional tests as well. Teachers should consider using new strategies for testing. We must alter our testing procedures if we want to produce critical, thoughtful readers. Creative thinkers often perform much better on tests that are nontraditional and reflect nontraditional instructional activities.

 

Consider the activity Factstorming  Factstorming was explained in the preparation module (# 3).  It is a good preparation activity because students identify familiar terms about a topic before they study further. Students can add to the list produced by factstorming after their studying is completed; the additions become an evaluation of new learning. If students are asked to explain each addition, they are demonstrating interpretation of information. If students categorize the already-known and new information and then write an essay about this categorization, application is demonstrated.

 

View the following videos at Edutopia Online:

 

Go to Edutopia Online

http://www.glef.org

 

Select the videos: “Assessment for understanding” and “Urban Academy: When testing is anything but standard.”

 

As you view these videos, complete the following:

 

Preparation:  First, connect what you have just read in the lecture above and the title of the video; anticipate what you will learn, based on what you already know.  In this way, you are becoming engaged or connected with the material and forming a purpose for your viewing. 

 

Assistance: As you view, answer the following question:

 

What do these videos tell me about the differences between standardized testing and classroom evaluation?  How can I make nonstandard evaluation work for me and my students as they take standardized tests?

 

Reflection:  After you read, apply your responses as you view the video clip in which a teacher uses an activity that helps students reflect about what they have learned about plant parts.

 

Your next assignment is to view the video clip about Plant Parts.

 

As you view the video, you should:

 

Notice how a Magic Square activity can help learners show what they know and apply the information.  Notice how learners solve the magic number by working quietly then demonstrating their answers on an illustration. 

 

Now view the video clip about the Magic Square activity (science).

 

As you view the video, you should:

 

Notice how the teacher has carefully planned her lesson in advance so that students are actively involved in their own learning.  Notice how she guides them but depends on them to demonstrate their own learning.

 

Jot notes about what you observe. 

 

The activity is called Magic Squares. 

 

Magic Squares capitalize on the vocabulary learned in a content lesson.  Any vocabulary activity can come alive through the use of magic squares. Magic squares are special arrangements of numbers that when added across, down, or diagonally always equal the same sum. Teachers can construct these vocabulary exercises by having students match a lettered column of words to a numbered column of definitions. Letters on each square of the grid match the lettered words. Students try to find the magic number by matching the correct word and definition and entering the number in the appropriate square or grid.

 

 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING MAGIC SQUARES

 

1.  START WITH A RANGE OF NUMBERS, SUCH AS 1-9, TO FILL 9 SQUARES IN A 3X3 MAGIC SQUARE.

 

2.  ADD THE FIRST AND LAST NUMBERS.  1 + 9 = 10; 4 + 12 = 16

 

3.  DETERMINE THE MIDPOINT AND PUT THAT NUMBER IN THE MIDDLE OF THE SQUARE. in 1 - 9 = 5;  in 4 - 12 = 8

 

4.  ADD THE FIRST, MIDDLE AND LAST NUMBERS.  1 + 5 + 9 = 15

 

5.  MAKE COMBINATIONS THAT ADD UP TO THIS MAGIC SQUARE NUMBER AND FILL IN THE SQUARE. 

 

4

1

7

8

5

2

3

9

6

 

6.  AS A SHORTCUT TO STEP 5, TAKE THE FIRST NUMBER IN YOUR SEQUENCE, SUCH AS # 1; COUNTING FROM THAT NUMBER, FOLLOW THE FOLLOWING DIRECTIONS.  IN THE EXAMPLE BELOW, 1 IS USED AS THE FIRST NUMBER.

 

            Put 1 in the center of the top row.

            Put 2 diagonally to the right then place it in the corresponding                     position in the magic square.

Put 3 diagonally to the right, then place it in the corresponding                    position.  Since you can't put 4 on the diagonal, you drop                  it below the 3.

            Place 5 and then 6 on the diagonal.

            You can't put 7 on the diagonal, so drop 7 down below the 6.

            Put 8 diagonally to the right and move to the corresponding             position.

            Put 9 diagonally to the right and then move it to the                             corresponding position below.

 

Other magic square combinations:

 

9

2

7

4

6

8

5

10

3

 

 

16

2

3

13

5

11

10

8

9

7

6

12

4

14

15

1

 

 

Participate in a small group discussion about this activity and post a summary of this discussion where all colleagues may read it:  How much time did the activity take?

Would this be a difficult or easy activity for you to incorporate in your own lessons?  Why/why not?

What did you like or dislike about the activity?

 

What have you learned in this module?  Answer these questions about Reflection:

 

Why is the Reflection step important in teaching content to secondary students?

 

What is the theory that underlies the step of Reflection?

 

What activities do you now know about that can help teach the strategy of reflection?

 

Which activities will work best for you in your content classroom?

 

Content for this Lesson Text comes from:

 

Richardson, J. S. & Morgan, R. F. (2000). Reading to learn in the content areas.  Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Companion chapters in Richardson and Morgan are chapters 7 & 8.

 

 

Suggested Readings:

 

Campbell, David (2000). Authentic assessment and authentic standards. Phi Delta Kappan, v 81, no. 5, p. 405.

 

Lockledge, Ann (1997) Portfolio assessment in middle school and high school social studies classrooms. The Social Studies, v. 88, no. 2, p. 65.

 

References:

 

Alvermann, D. E. (1987). Discussion strategies for content area reading. In D. Alvermann, D. R. Dillon, and D. G. O’Brien (Eds.), Using discussion to promote reading comprehension (pp. 34–42). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

 

Alvermann, D. E., Young, J. P., Weaver, D., Hinchman, K., Moore, D., Phelps, S., Thrash, E. C., and Zalewski, P.  (1996).  Middle and high school students' perceptions of how they experience text-based discusiions:  A multicase study.  Reading Research Quarterly, 31:, (3), 244-267.

 

Barton, J. (1995). Conducting effective classroom discussions. Journal of Reading, 38, 346–350.

 

Beyer, B. K. (1984). Improving thinking skills: Defining the problem. Phi Delta Kappan, 65, 486–490.

 

Brown, R. (1987). Who is accountable for thoughtfulness? Phi Delta Kappan, 69, 49–52.

 

Erickson, F., and Schultz, J. (1992). Students’ experience of the curriculum. In P. W. Jackson (Ed.) Handbook of Research on Curriculum. (pp. 465-485). New York: Macmillan and the American Educational Research Association.

 

Hawkes, K. S., and Schell, L. M. (1987). Teacher-set prereading purposes and comprehension. Reading Horizons, 27, 164–169.

 

Kletzein, S. B. (1991). Strategy use by good and poor comprehenders reading expository text of differing reading levels. Reading Research Quarterly, 26, 67–86.

 

Richardson, J. S. (1999). Reading is Drudgery; Reading is Deeper Meaning.  Paper presented at the 43rd conference of the College Reading Association conference, Hillton Head, North Carolina.

 

Salvia, J., and Ysseldyke, J. (1998). Assessment, 7th edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.

 

Glossary of terms:

 

Fade – a process whereby the teacher steps back or fades out and the student takes the main role or center stage!

 

Autonomous learners - learners who can take control and learn on their own

 

Comprehension monitoring - good readers are able to pause and demonstrate their comprehension by retelling and analyzing what they have read and by using certain strategies consistently. They check or monitor their own understanding.

 

Informed communication – using listening, speaking, reading and writing to learn in an informed manner.

 

Assessment - a process of collecting data for the purpose of making decisions about students; an ongoing process analogous to “determining background.”

 

Evaluation - a term usually associated with making judgments about students’ performance, such as in teacher-made tests or standardized tests.

 

Products of learning - the answers, or final product, that demonstrates whether the reader has learned the content.

 

Non-traditional tests – innovative ways of testing designed to produce critical, thoughtful readers. Creative thinkers often perform much better on tests that are nontraditional and reflect nontraditional instructional activities.

 

Factstorming – an activity where the students are asked to think of facts (or what they think are the facts) before learning more about the topic. It can also be used as a way to reflect back on what was said at the beginning of a lesson and how much one has learned at the end of the lesson.

 

Magic squares - special arrangements of numbers that when added across, down, or diagonally always equal the same sum, often used at the reflection level and especially for vocabulary reflection.